The Parnassius genus is found in the Northern Hemisphere. These butterflies are generally found in cold or arctic areas which include many mountain ranges and mountain tops. This genus contains numerous species of medium-small generally white butterflies marked with black and/or red spots. Many species feed on Sedum, and many species are quite local.

Because many of these lifeforms are found on high mountains or in local mountain ranges, one can suspect that there are many truly isolated populations. Although a few new lifeforms might be discovered in the Yukon and Alaskan areas of the New World, and some discovered in the mountains of Russia, we can presume that most life forms have been discovered. However, the challenge of arranging these lifeforms into different species and different subspecies is just beginning. There is a lot of controversy.

Bryk in 1935 listed 34 species. Monroe in 1960 listed 37 species. Eisner in 1966 listed about 32 species. Ackery in 1975 followed Eisner. We have relied on Ackery, but also accepted some life forms not in Ackery. To compliment the species with images, we have added 6 species of Parnassius without images.

Eurasian Parnassius and related genera reach their zenith of development in northern China and northern India.

The group is listed here in alphabetical sequence by species within genus. The "Guide to the Genera and Species of Parnassiinae," a Bulletin published in London by the British Museum, has been used as a reference to create a list of forty-four known species. (P.R.Ackery, London, 1975)

Many of the subspecies forms in this group should no doubt be raised to full species status as research continues with new forms being discovered yearly. As Luehdorfia chinensis and Luehdorfia longicaudata likely fall into this latter group they have been included in this list (an * indicates that this species is pictured):

SPECIES - - - - - - LOCATION
Archon appolinus - Rumania to Iraq
Bhutanitis lidderdalii - North India to north Siam
Bhutanitis ludlowi - Bhutan
Bhutanitis mansfieldi - China, Yunnan
Bhutanitis thaidina - China, Yunnan, Szechwan
Cressida cressida - Australia and nearby
Hypermnestra helios - Iran, Afghanistan
Luehdorfia puziloi - East Asia, Korea, Japan
Luehdorfia japonica - Japan, China
Luehdorfia longicaudata - China
Luehdorfia chinensis - China

Parnassius acdestes - USSR, China
Parnassius acco - Tibet, Sikkim
Parnassius actius - Afghanistan to China
Parnassius apollonius - USSR, China
Parnassius apollo - Sweden, Europe to China
Parnassius ariadne - USSR, Mongolia
Parnassius autocrator - Afghanistan, USSR
Parnassius bremeri - China, Korea
Parnassius cephalus - Tibet, China

Parnassius charitonius - Afghan, Tibet, north India
Parnassius delphius - Afghan. USSR, China, Tibet
Parnassius epahus - Afghanistan, north India, China
Parnassius eversmanni - Circumpolar
Parnassius jacquemonti - Afghanistan, USSR
Parnassius glacialis - Japan, China
Parnassius hardwicki - North India, Nepal
Parnassius honrathi - Afghanistan, USSR
Parnassius imperator - China, Tibet

Parnassius inopinatus - Afghanistan
Parnassius loxias - USSR, China
Parnassius mnemosyne - North Europe to Iraq, Iran
Parnassius nomion - Mongolia, USSR, China
Parnassius nordmanni - USSR
Parnassius orleans - Mongolia, China
Parnassius patricius - USSR
Parnassius phoebis - Europe, N. America, USSR, etcetera
Parnassius simo - USSR, India, China, Tibet
Parnassius stubbendorfi - USSR, Japan
Parnassius szechenyii - Tibet, China
Parnassius tianschanicus - USSR. Afghanistan
Parnassius tenedius - USSR, Mongolia, China
Sericinus montela - China, Korea
Zerynthia cerisy - Rumania, Iran, Iraq
Zerynthia polyxena - France, Italy, Greece, etcetera
Zerynthia rumina - South France, Spain, Portugal

Note: Because Cressida cressida is not easily classified, it is arbitrarily included here even though it probably does not belong in the Parnassian group. This makes a total of 45 butterflies in the group. If we add the Baronia(1) and Euryades(2) genera of the New world, the total then reaches about 48 species.

Parnassius phoebis and Parnassius eversmanni found in both the Old and New World groups, are listed in the North American group and the Eurasian group.

Family Papilionidae (Swallowtails), Papilio family, contains about five hundred and fifty different species with perhaps a new species still being discovered every two or three years. Many species are sexually dimorphic in that the females do not look like the males. A common example of this is the Tiger Swallowtail of North America where the males are always yellow and black and the females can be either yellow and black or occasionally a blue color.

Swallowtails are usually medium to large species and strong fliers. They are unusual in that the adults have six fully developed legs. Many newer families of butterflies have only four well-developed legs with the front two legs being very underdeveloped.

Butterfly scientists are attracted to this group, and high prices are paid for the largest and the rarest kinds. Most of the species are bred locally on a hobby-business basis to fill the demand.

The Queen Alexander might be extinct. Although this species has been protected, the damage seems to have been done by land clearing projects which took away its natural habitat. The number of specimens in collections seems to be so small that collectors cannot be blamed for this extinction. There are probably less than ten collections in the United States that have over five hundred different species of Papilionidae.

Butterflies and Moths (Order Lepidoptera) are a group of insects with four large wings. They go through various life cycles including eggs, caterpillar (larvae), pupae, and adult. Most butterflies and moths feed as adults, but primarily do most of their growing in the larval or caterpillar stage. Also, most species are restricted to feeding as caterpillars upon a unique set of plants. In this pairing of insects to plants, there arises a unique plant population control system. When one plant species becomes too common, specific pests to that species also become more common and thus prevent the further spreading of that particular plant species.

Although most people think of the Lepidoptera as two different groups: butterflies and moths, technically, the concept is not valid.

Some families, such as Silk Moths (Saturnidae) and Hawk Moths (Sphingidae), are clearly moths. Other families, such as Swallowtail Butterflies (Papilionidae), are clearly butterflies, However, several families exhibit characteristics that appear to be neither moths nor butterflies. For example: the Castnia Moths of South America are frequently placed in the Skipper Family (Hesperidae). The Sunset Moths (Uranidae) have long narrow antennae and fly during the day.

The Saturnidae (Silk Moths) and Papilionidae (Swallowtails) are two Lepidoptera families that have been very carefully researched as to species and subspecies. The current thinking is that if the male genitalia are alike, then the two specimens belong to the same species. As an amateur, your editor disagrees with this premise. If the genitalia are different, then no doubt two species are involved. However, if the genitalia are alike, it only proves that the genitalia are alike.

Consider Papilio multicaudata which is found in southern Canada at higher altitudes. Papilio multicaudata is found south through the Rocky Mountains as far south as Mexico City, and recently as far south as Guatemala. With different food plants, different soil types, different climates, and different seasonal patterns, it is hard to believe that this complex is all one species.

Consider capturing 100 living individuals at any life stage in Guatemala and then carrying them north to southern Canada. Would these individuals survive through several generations. If they would not survive, then this author would conclude that two different species are involved!

In the Saturnidae consider Eacles imperialis subspecies pini. This life form feeds on pines. Is not this sufficient to justify a full species status?

Note: Numerous museums and biologists have loaned specimens to be photographed for this project.



Insects (Class Insecta) are the most successful animals on Earth if success is measured by the number of species or the total number of living organisms. This class contains more than a million species, of which North America has approximately 100,000. (Recent estimates place the number of worldwide species at four to six million.)

Insects have an exoskeleton. The body is divided into three parts. The foremost part, the head, usually bears two antennae. The middle part, the thorax, has six legs and usually four wings. The last part, the abdomen, is used for breathing and reproduction.

Although different taxonomists divide the insects differently, about thirty-five different orders are included in most of the systems.

The following abbreviated list identifies some common orders of the many different orders of insects discussed herein:

Odonata: - Dragon and Damsel Flies
Orthoptera: - Grasshoppers and Mantids
Homoptera: - Cicadas and Misc. Hoppers
Diptera: - Flies and Mosquitoes
Hymenoptera: - Ants, Wasps, and Bees
Lepidoptera: - Butterflies and Moths
Coleoptera: - Beetles


Jointed Legged Animals (Phylum Arthropoda) make up the largest phylum. There are probably more than one million different species of arthropods known to science. It is also the most successful animal phylum in terms of the total number of living organisms.

Butterflies, beetles, grasshoppers, various insects, spiders, and crabs are well-known arthropods.

The phylum is usually broken into the following five main classes:
Arachnida: - Spiders and Scorpions
Crustacea: - Crabs and Crayfish
Chilopoda: - Centipedes
Diplopoda: - Millipedes
Insecta: - Insects

There are several other "rare" classes in the arthropods that should be mentioned. A more formal list is as follows:

Sub Phylum Chelicerata
C. Arachnida: - Spiders and scorpions
C. Pycnogonida: - Sea spiders (500 species)
C. Merostomata: - Mostly fossil species

Sub Phylum Mandibulata
C. Crustacea: - Crabs and crayfish

Myriapod Group
C. Chilopoda: - Centipedes
C. Diplopoda: - Millipedes
C. Pauropoda: - Tiny millipede-like
C. Symphyla: - Garden centipedes

Insect Group
C. Insecta: - Insects

The above list does not include some extinct classes of Arthropods such as the Trilobites.

Animal Kingdom contains numerous organisms that feed on other animals or plants. Included in the animal kingdom are the lower marine invertebrates such as sponges and corals, the jointed legged animals such as insects and spiders, and the backboned animals such as fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals.

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